Human Rights In A Democratic South Africa

Human Rights In A Democratic South Africa In the South African Constitution, citizens are given many different rights. The right to education is specifically important because it builds and largely determines the future of the next generation. Since I am in a privileged position regarding education, attending a private school, I have decided to research the right to education of all South Africans. My aim is to find whether the right to education which are guaranteed in our constitution to both children and adults are realised in the daily lives of all South Africans. My research is focused on high school education (i.e. Grade 8 to Grade 12). This is the phase which forms the foundation for Matric results. Analysing the Grade 12 results across all sectors of our population along with other primary and secondary sources will give a good indication of whether the right to Education is realised in South Africa. I predict that the rights to education are not fulfilled across all races and income groups in South Africa. Review of Literature The research done on existing information regarding the right to Education in South Africa has been studied and is discussed below. The following secondary sources include a combination of angles ranging from the Bill of Rights, the Popular Media (focusing on the recent Limpopo textbook crisis) and Education Statistics of the last few years. There are many different viewpoints regarding Education in South Africa, some highlighting the corruption and inefficiency, some focusing on the transitional phase we seem to be in, and others looking only at the successes. Education is perceived in such different ways because different audiences look at different aspects of the whole, i.e. the teachers, the pass rates or governmental management. Looking holistically at the entire situation will produce a clearer and more objective result. Source 1: The Constitution of South Africa, 4 February 1997, Chapter 2 Bill of rights, Section 29 Education When a careful study is made of the rights to education as stipulated by the South African Constitution, one finds that every child and adult has the right to basic education as well as further education. The state is primarily responsible to provide the infra-structure in which its citizens could be educated. This implies that the state should provide sufficient school buildings, enough capable teaching staff to ensure a healthy teacher-learner ratio, textbooks and other educational materials. The education system should be free from discrimination on the basis of race, gender and language. Education should be made available in all the official languages where at all practically possible. The education system should also make room for independent institutions which are registered with the state and provide standards comparable to that of public educational institutions. Source 2: Articles by Greg Nicolson from the Daily Maverick 2.1 Limpopos education crisis: The price of incompetence and corruption It is vitally important to have an education system which can be trusted. This article deals with explaining the politics behind the Limpopo textbook crisis. During a tender process advertised by the Limpopo education department there were 23 possible tenders of which 22 were immediately disqualified on the basis of technicalities. From this there was later found that the one which was accepted, EduSolutions, had been pocketing money from the government throughout the process and has left the Limpopo schools without the necessary textbooks and learning materials. 2.2 SAs education crisis: Limpopo STILL without books A recent discrepancy in the Limpopo education department has exposed the education system as corrupt and incompetent. However while the issue is being investigated and addressed a large amount of Limpopo students were left without textbooks and were unable to continue any learning. The seriousness of this situation lies not only in the fraud but the inadequacy of the manner in which students were left without any means to education until the middle of the school year. While the whole event has become a political issue there is still no answer to the problems which the students face in their battle for proper education. Source 3: Is South Africa fulfilling right to free education for all right? April 10, 2011  · by Akanyang Merementsi  · in Media, Society This article discusses education in the world and in South Africa and compares the standard of education between South Africa and the world. Not only is focus put on the importance of education as a human right but it also makes the reader aware of the large high school dropout rates and the negative effects thereof. The article discusses A4 as a model of assessment which the education department needs to adopt in order to function effectively. A4 is Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability and Adaptability. These four traits are vital in the department of education in South Africa. Source 4: The South African Department of Education Action plan 14 June 2003 and Strategic Plan 9 March 2011 In 2003 the South African education department confessed to a failing education system and set up a plan of action in order to rectify and improve the education system. It set guidelines in order to help in areas which through community debate and school statistics had been found wanting. However, it is now almost 10 years later and this Action Plan is still needed. Similarly a Strategic Plan has recently been drawn up for education in 2011 to 2014 (published on 9 March 2011). The need for both of these plans highlights the shortcomings in the South African education system; fortunately there is a plan to fix them. For this plan to be effectively deployed, the basic education system needs more than paperwork. What ultimately happens to the children in South African schools is that they are left without means to further education while administrative issues are being addressed. The plans are there, but they are simply not being carried through. Source 5: Reinvent local education now by Jon Tullett, Editor: News analysis, 11 Jul 2012 This source uses several points ranging from the Limpopo textbook crisis to our educational world rankings to discuss the importance of a reinvented education system and the current lack of basic education in South Africa. Certain issues are addressed and possible solutions mentioned in order to move South Africa forward in education using its resources and technology. Recently South Africa was ranked out of 142 countries In the World Economic Forums Global Competitiveness 2011-2012 report. South Africa is in position133 regarding the quality of the education system and in position138 for the quality of maths and science education. These are not good statistics and clearly show a fault in the education system. As we are behind countries such as Zimbabwe this quote from the article relates to many South Africans: When you think of some of the poverty-stricken, war-ravaged, desolate countries in the world, it is sobering to think they are all better than us. Source 6: Education statistics 2010 Published by the Department of Basic Education February 2012 6.1 Ratios, indicators, page 6 Statistics can be used to deduce several facts; in this case ratios are presented to show the effectiveness in numbers of the education department in South Africa. Specifically the ratios are the learner-educator ratio (LER), learner-school ratio (LSR) and educator-school ratio (ESR). The LER in 2010 was 29.3:1 and unfortunately increased to 32.2:1 in 2011. In 2010 the LSR was 474:1 which then also increased to a ratio of 484.5:1 in 2011. In 2011 the ESR had decreased to 16:1 from 2010s 16.2:1. These ratios (The LER, LSR and ESR) are that of the Public and Independent schools throughout South Africa. 6.2 National Senior Certificate (NSC) pass rates When considering whether the right to education is fulfilled in South African high schools it is vitally important to look at the level of education provided from the beginning and throughout the course of Grade 8 to Grade 12. Nonetheless, the level of education can only really be clearly seen through studying the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate pass rates and related statistics. The overall national pass rate in 2010 in the NSC examination was 67.8%. Although throughout the country more females than males wrote the NSC examination, the pass rate for males was higher than that for females. There has been an increase from 62.5% (2008) to 70.2% (2011) in Grade 12 final results in the last 4 years which is a good statistic but considering the level of education it is debatable that pass rates are higher due to a lowering in education standards as will be discussed below. Source 7: Rippling effect of the lowering of standards of basic education 18 July 2012, Varsity SA The main purpose of the South African education department should not be merely educating students but to equip learners with that which is necessary to not only pass Grade 12 but also to be educated enough for further studies. This is important because it is these students who will be responsible for carrying the country and taking over the South African economy thus students need further education and they need to be well enough equipped for further education. This article from Varsity SA raises concerns about the lowered NSC standards which have led to an increase in pass rates. It is currently required that a student only receive 30% (thus knowing only 30% of the syllabus) in order to pass the NSC. Universities have become very unhappy with the large gap in standard between Grade 12 and first year of University studies. This has a large impact on the country as a whole. According to Statistics South Africa there are 4.24 million unemployed people in South Africa. If the standard of basic education continues decreasing it will result in unemployment increasing and not decreasing as expected by government. Unless the education standards are raised the target set by government will not be achieved. Methodology When referring to the topic of Basic Education as a human right in South Africa at high school level, it is clear that research should range across all provinces and schools. Results obtained from a few questionnaires would not clearly and honestly propose a result to the hypothesis of education as a Human Right. Therefore, other means of information, specifically secondary sources, needed to be collected and analysed. The secondary sources collected provide a wide range of ideas and opinions about the education system as well as facts and statistics from a variety of sources. The secondary research conducted was from newspaper articles and internet research. South African education has been the focus of many newspapers, magazines and of the community as a whole, especially with the Limpopo textbook crisis and statistics which were released this year. Gathering research thus became a daily job of listening to news reports, social debates and community discussions. Most of the research ideas come from discussing the topic with people, be it teachers, students, parents or any other South African citizen. Education touches every single South African in one way or another thus it is vitally important to hear what South Africa has to say about education and how it impacts their lives. Articles seen online and in newspapers were recorded and every time a new issue about education was raised the topic was recorded. Then internet research was done on the list of information and the articles found. More online research was done in order to gather other sources and specifically statistics from done surveys and from Statistics South Africa. Both quantitive and qualitive data is used; quantitive data such as statistics and ratios and the qualitive data include reports, articles, opinions, interviews and other literature. Considering the large gap between high school education and university education it was important to have first hand research of the level of students entering university. A senior accounting lecturer of the University of Witwatersrand, Mrs. Belinda Breytenbach, was contacted and an interview set up. Here further insight into the shortcomings of the education system was revealed. Interview questions: Do you believe that the right to education in South Africa for high school students is being fulfilled? Why or why not? Is it true that there is a growing concern regarding the cognitive abilities of first year students who have completed the NSC? Could you describe the academic level of the first year accounting students in general? What would you say is the single biggest need among students academically? How high are the university dropout rates and do you believe that they are increased due to the education students receive in high school? Is there cause for concern about the lowered standards which increase the pass rates of learners writing the NSC? With English being the medium of instruction how would you rate the proficiency of the average first year student? What do you believe are the main areas of concern in the basic education system of South Africa? Do you encounter difficulties in your field of work which is due to the lack of proper education for high school student? Do you believe that education in South Africa is viewed more negatively due to stereotypes? Are there enough opportunities for students who do not receive university acceptance? Do you think that the large amounts of students who after receiving the NSC do not receive university acceptance directly increase the unemployment rate and affect the South African economy? If so, why? What would you suggest the South African Department of Education do to further the education system? Processing of findings The majority of research material is secondary sources. Therefore conclusions and results need to be taken from the literature, graphs and ratios used. From this graph it is clear that by far the majority of learners in South Africa attend Public Schools. For this reason it is vitally important that the South African Education System is successfully fulfilling the basic right to Education as set out in the Bill of Rights. Below all the sources from the Literature Review are analyzed and interpreted in order to determine whether this right is fulfilled throughout the country. Studying the Limpopo textbook crisis, it is quite clear that corruption and a lack of integrity caused learners to suffer great loss in terms of learning materials and eventually in terms of time wasted. There is still no clear plan of action for the successful delivery of learning materials for 2014. Ultimately both articles prove the point that government officials are more concerned about playing politics than about the actual education of learners, who in turn become the victims of dishonesty. The Education Department should have a careful look at their priorities and put the learners first. When comparing South African Education to the rest of the World, South Africa has the fifth worst education system of all the countries reviewed. This puts us behind a country such as Zimbabwe, which in itself should raise grave concern. The current education system disappoints in terms of delivery of results as well as in terms of development. It is quite clear that the academic discussion of the problem has been done and the answers are on the table, however, the implementation of the Strategic Plan calls for responsible individuals to be monitored by the system. The SA Education Department has the tights ideas but has not succeeded in bringing them into action. This in itself might be a result of inferior teacher training procedures and highlights the need for proper education on a secondary and a tertiary level. Too much time is spent on the administration and discussion of the problem, and too little on the actual implementation and monitoring of the system. When analyzing the current education situation it is important to interpret ratios and statistics. Between 2009 and 2010 the Learner Educator ratio increased which means that teachers had bigger classes and more learners had less individual attention from the teacher. The Learner School ratio also increased, highlighting the need for more school buildings. The Educator School ratio decreased, showing that although learner numbers increased, the amount of teachers decreased. These ratios are an indication of the negative development of the entire system, adding unnecessary stress and workload to teachers. The Grade 12 results of 2009 and 2010 are displayed below. At first glance the increase in pass rate looks positive. However, the actual number of students who performed better did not increase, but the requirement to pass decreased to a lower standard and therefore the pass rate increased. In an interview with a senior accounting lecturer from the University of the Witwatersrand, Mrs. Belinda Breytenbach, the following information emerged: High School education is not adequate and many learners are taught by unqualified teachers. Lecturers sit with the problem of students not having the necessary language or mathematical skills to understand the work content. This makes teaching very difficult and emphasizes the need for better education on a higher standard. One of the biggest problems is a lack of English proficiency. When looking at the university dropout rate and the level of comprehension of these students, it is certainly cause for concern. Dropout rates are high and pass rates are low among first year students. When looking at Mrs Breytenbachs answers to the questionnaire, the deduction is made that Education on a tertiary level is severely hampered by inferior teaching on a secondary level. Interview Response: Do you believe that the right to education in South Africa for high school students is being fulfilled? No. Why or why not? Several factors contribute but among them is the inadequacy of education, the need for schools and qualified educators. The textbook crisis is another example. Is it true that there is a growing concern regarding the cognitive abilities of first year students who have completed the NSC? Yes, First year accounting pass rates are low. The mathematic and english skills of the students are below the required standard. Could you describe the academic level of the first year accounting students in general? It is definitely below the expected level at University. We find that most students are on about a Grade 10 and 11 standard and this makes teaching more difficult. What would you say is the single biggest need among students academically? English reading and writing skills. Students struggle with writing and have extreme difficulty with their comprehension skills. How high are the university dropout rates and do you believe that they are increased due to the education students receive in high school? Yes I do, the dropout rate is relatively high for university (+ 30 40%). Is there cause for concern about the lowered standards which increase the pass rates of learners writing the NSC? Yes, people are less equipped to pass at University. With English being the medium of instruction how would you rate the proficiency of the average first year student? English is poor. The majority of students are not first language English speakers. What do you believe are the main areas of concern in the basic education system of South Africa? The education and qualifications of the teachers themselves along with the fact that many learners are passing to the next grade/level without actually having the required knowledge. Do you encounter difficulties in your field of work which is due to the lack of proper education for high school student? Yes, they cannot grasp the accounting concepts due to a lack of English skills along with basic mathematical and accounting knowledge which although required is not actually present. Do you believe that education in South Africa is viewed more negatively due to stereotypes? Yes, but it is not only due to stereotypes. The lack of proper education is a problem I deal with on a daily basis at the University. Are there enough opportunities for students who do not receive university acceptance? Yes, the opportunities exist but students are not equipped well enough and simply do not always use the chances they are given. Do you think that the large amounts of students who after receiving the NSC do not receive university acceptance directly increase the unemployment rate and affect the South African economy? Yes If so why? Many students have passed grade 12 and have received the NSC but the level is too low and thus students cant get university acceptance and are not well enough prepared to be able to work as part of a growing economy. What would you suggest the South African Department of Education do to further the education system? Ensure that teachers are properly qualified. Try to focus on separating politics and education in all aspects. Provide more schools and opportunities. One way of doing this is by joining in on projects similar to one we run at the University of Witwatersrand, it is called the Wits Soweto schools project and it is where university lecturers go to help tutor school children in rural or underprivileged areas. Conclusion Having studied the education system in South Africa over a period of month and with the help of primary and secondary sources, a conclusion has been reached. As predicted in the hypothesis the human right to basic education in South Africa is not fulfilled on a satisfactory level nationally. There are not enough school buildings, there are not enough qualified teachers, learning materials do not always reach the learners and ultimately the level of education is too low to prepare learners for tertiary studies. There are many different reasons for the current problems within the Education System, and one of the biggest reasons is that unqualified teachers teach, which perpetuates the problem. This national problem needs to be addressed with a long term view, creating opportunities for staff development, improved teacher training and careful administration of resources and programs. The strategic plan should be actively enforced and the priority of the South African Education Department should be the learners. The system needs to be constantly reviewed and adjusted in the light of international standards. It is imperative that weak learners should be supported and helped to achieve, rather than to lower standards in an effort to increase pass rates. The biggest limitation of the above discussion is that there is no reference to children who are not even part of any schooling system and not accounted for in any statistics. Several of the secondary sources could be biased as it is written from an individuals perspective although facts and statistics were used. Doing this research project has opened my eyes to the complexity of the South African situation with particular reference to the education system. It does not have a simple solution; neither does it have a single contributing factor. There are numerous problems interlinking causing even bigger problems and one would need great wisdom, huge resources and a lot of determination to even begin addressing these problems. Great leadership is needed in this regard. Reference List Newspaper articles: Nicolson, Greg. 2012. Limpopos education crisis: The price of incompetence and corruption. The Daily Maverick. 18 July 2012 Nicolson, Greg. 2012. SAs education crisis: Limpopo STILL without books. The Daily Maverick. 17 July 2012 Websites: Merementsi, Akanyang. 10 April 2011. Is South Africa fulfilling right to free education for all right?. Media Society. http://akanyangafrica.wordpress.com/2011/04/10/is-south-africa-fulfilling-right-to-free-education-for-all-right/. 6 July 2012. Nicolson, Greg.17 July 2012.SAs education crisis: Limpopo STILL without books. The Daily Maverick.http://dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-07-17-sas-education-crisis-limpopo-still-without-books. 1 September 2012. Nicolson, Greg. 18 July 2012. Limpopos education crisis: The price of incompetence and corruption. The Daily Maverick. http://dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-07-18-limpopos-education-crisis-the-price-of-incompetence-and-corruption. 1 September 2012 Right to education project © 2008. The Constitution of South Africa. Right to education project.http://www.right-to-education.org/country-node/522/country-constitutional. 22 June 2012 The South African Department of Education. 14 June 2003. Action plan. The South African Department of Education. http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket =IBMz%2FjGelkc%3Dtabid=390mid=1124. 4 September 2012. The South African Department of Education. 9 March 2011. Strategic Plan. The South African Department of Education.http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket= %2F%2BBILaBJ7ak%3Dtabid=80mid=585. 4 September 2012. The South African Department of Education. Feb 2012. Education statistics 2010. The South African Department of Education. http://www.education.gov.za/EMISSTATISTICS /StatisticalPublications/tabid/462/Default.aspx. 22 June 2012. Tullett, Jon. 11 Jul 2012. Reinvent local education now. It web. http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option =com_contentview =articleid=56651. 13 August 2012. 18 July 2012.Rippling effect of the lowering of standards of basic education. Varsity SA. http://varsitysa.co.za/fun-stuff/articles/rippling-effect-of-the-lowering-of-standards-of-basic-education/.7 September 2012. Interview: Senior lecturer of Accounting from the University of the Witwatersrand Belinda Breytenbach. Tel:0832934350

Strawson Has Shown Russells Theory Of Definite Descriptions Philosophy Essay

Strawson Has Shown Russells Theory Of Definite Descriptions Philosophy Essay Sir Peter Strawsons ironically titled paper of 1950 On Referring argues that expressions do not refer in themselves but rather people refer when using expressions.(Lycan, 2008:20) Influenced by Wittgensteins Use Theories, Strawson did not consider a sentence to hold a truth value in its abstraction but rather it is in virtue of the way in which Human Beings utter and react to the sentence that give it the attribute of truthfulness and as such he considered his theory to be more adaptable than Russells Theory of Definite Descriptions in regard to ordinary language use. (Austin, 1978:531) In this essay I will critically analyse Peter Strawsons argument in relation to Bertrand Russells theory with the intention of demonstrating that Strawsons position on ordinary language is unsubstantiated and that the consequences of his language model has deeper philosophical implications which marks his theory, not Russells, as untenable. I will initially outline Russells argument in the light of St rawsons critique of the Theory of Descriptions to determine the flaws it uncovers in Russells theory. I will then attempt to offer Strawsons alternative theory through his objections to the Theory of Descriptions, to prove that his attempt to justify his theory as less problematic to the use of ordinary language is misguided. I will then finally attempt to engage in Keith Donnellans solution to consider whether it proposes a more successful and balanced approach to Russells and Strawsons theoretical problems of meaning and reference. The most efficient model for demonstrating the dilemma concerning Russell and Strawson is through Russells famous example; The present king of France is bald (Russell, 1905:485) This sentence appears to be of a subject predicate form with the grammatical subject present king of France forming the denoting phrase that Russell profoundly analysed in his paper of 1905 On Denoting. Russell proposed that there are three types of denoting phrases, however for the context of this essay I will deal exclusively with those denoting phrases that denote a single definite person or object also known as definite description akin to present king of France above. According to Russell declarative sentences of the structure of (1)do not possess the object represented by the grammatical subject in the sentence but rather conceal the more complex existential expression in virtue of their logical structure; there is one and only one x that is y, with x representing the grammatical subject and y representing the predicate. It is when the expression is altered into logical form that Russell makes the distinction between the logical subject and the grammatical subject of the sente nce which he proposes as the solution to the puzzles of non-referring definite descriptions. (Morris, 2007:51) So if we convert (1) into formal logic; 2) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã†â€™x(F(x) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€š ¬y(F(y) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ x=y) G(x)) (Ludlow 2007) Russell proposes that in instances at least of denoting phrases being the grammatical subject of the sentence, the misunderstanding that leads to the puzzles occurs in virtue of the denoting phrase being an incomplete symbol on logical analysis. (Perkins, 1972:201)This is deceptive in that it is not obvious in ordinary language and as such it is in fact x that is the logical subject of the sentence. Consequently Russell contends that denoting phrases never have meaning in themselves, but that every proposition whose verbal expression they occur has meaning.'(Russell, 1905:480) In other words whilst the sentence (1) may appear to be of a subject -predicate form, it is in fact not in virtue of the logical proposition concealing the quantifier of the expression and subsequently Russell argues that the denoting phrase contributes meaning above its referent in that it is not actually a singular term but a quantificational structure. (Lycan, 2008:14) With this in mind, if we analyse the co mplex existential claim asserted by the definite article the in (1) a)(à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã†â€™x)Fx b)(â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¢x)( Fx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Gx) (Fy à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ y= x)) c)(â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¢x)( Fx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Gx) (Lycan, 2008:14) It is necessarily the case that each condition needs to be satisfied in order for the proposition to be true, however in this instance condition (a) is false in virtue of nothing in the world satisfying the condition of being the present king of France and consequently conditions (b) and (c) cannot be satisfied . As a result of uncovering this logical structure it is evident that the grammatical subject in these classes of sentences are not singular terms in so much as the king does not feature in the logical form of (1) and as such denoting phrases cannot hold meaning independent of the proposition . Russell argues that this demonstrates how it is possible for sentences that express a non-referring denoting phrase to be meaningful and hold a truth value despite not referring. (Russell, 1905:484) Conversely Strawson contended that the statement was not false but rather devoid of truth value in that it misfired in its attempt to refer, and further argues that this mistake occurs in virtue of Russells disregard to the distinction between uniquely referring expressions, that which mentions or refers to some individual person or single object, (Strawson, 1950: 324) and a sentence beginning with such an expression. He formulates the distinction between the expression itself, a use and utterance and similarly a sentence, its use and utterance. (Strawson, 1950: 325) If we reconsider example (1), and suppose that it is uttered once during the reign of Louis XIV and once during the reign of Louis XV, in this instance the same sentence has been uttered on two difference occasions of use (Strawson, 1950:327) and it would be logical to admit that it was uttered about different men and as such the statement asserted could either be true or false on either occasion. That is the man who utt ered it during the reign of Louis XIV may have been true in virtue of the King being bald whilst the other man may have been incorrect in asserting such a statement. Subsequently it is clear that the same sentence can be used differently on two different occasions of the utterance. Furthermore, if the same sentence (1) had been uttered concurrently during the reign of Louis XIV, then it could be said that the same sentence had been used to express the same statement to the extent that as a result of successful reference to a present king of France the statement must necessarily hold a truth value, however the utterances of sentence (1) would have been different. (Strawson, 1950: 328) Therefore it must be the case, on the evidence presented, that it is possible to use the same sentences to make different statements with altering truth values, and it is in virtue of not recognising the distinction between sentences and expressions and their uses that Russell does not appreciate that i t is only through the token use (Cohen,2008:1) of a sentence that one can make a statement and similarly through the use of an expression or sentence that one can refer to a particular person through context laid out by the statement made and as such an (Lemmon,1966:90) Expressions cannot be used to mention, or to refer to, anything, any more than a sentence can be said to be true or false. The same expression can have different mentioning uses, as the same sentence can be used to make statements with different truth values.mentioning is not something an expression does, it is something that someone can use an expression to do. (Strawson 1950: 327) Accordingly, Strawson concludes that just as the use of a sentence generates the truth value of a statement, referring or mentioning is the function of the use of an expression or sentence in that it is the speaker who uses the expression or sentence that refers and therefore it is illogical to speak of the same things about sentences their uses and utterances and about unique referring expressions their uses and utterances for they belong to different categories. (Lemmon, 1966:91) So if we again reconsider; The present king of France is bald (Russell, 1905:485) From the distinctions demonstrated in On Referring Strawson challenges Russells assertion that this statement is false. He argues that as a result of Russell confusing expressions with their use in a particular context (Strawson, 1950: 326) it appears that the sentences appear meaningful and false. However as for mentioned, Strawson considers that whilst the sentence itself holds meaning it is the token use of the sentence on a particular occasion that alters the sentence into a statement which holds truth value.(Cohen, 2008:3) Consequently Strawson argues that in virtue of (1) being a sentence in itself that it is in fact meaningful in so much as it provides general direction for use, however since any present token use of it does not refer then it is not false but rather lacks truth value in so much as it misfires in its attempt to refer to the (nonexistent) present King of France. (Strawson, 1950: 327) Unlike other false statements such as, the present Prime Minster of England is female, which is defective as a consequence of the speaker incorrectly referring to Gordon Brown as female, (1) is defective since the speaker has failed in his attempt to identify a referring subject and as such it should be disregarded as spurious use (Strawson, 1950:327) rather than considered false. (Lycan, 2008: 20) Strawson further develops his objection by demonstrating that it is the grammatical subject of the sentence that refers to the referent whilst it is the predicate that attributes a characteristic to the referent. However when reference fails it is inconceivable to attribute something to which we cannot refer and as such no attribution take place and therefore the statement cannot hold a truth value. (Cohen, 2008:3) Unlike sentences akin the present Prime Minister of England is female (1) does not attribute anything to the king of France since he does not exist. Consequently Strawson takes up a position which is strikingly similar to Frege who distinguishes between the referent and the sense of a sentence and as such it is possible for a sentence to express more than one sense, or furthermore a sense can be expressed by different sentences. As a result sentences akin to (1) which have a sense but no referent are meaningful in so much as you can understand them, however they lack the q uality of truthfulness. (Lemmon, 1966:94) Strawson perceives Russell as ignoring this distinction and as a consequence he misapprehends the identifying role of the grammatical subject between entailment and presupposition in that anyone who use the sentences (1) to make a statement implies that there is a present king of France. (Strawson, 1950:332) The notion of implies is equivalent to presuppose but it is in no way comparable to the formal logical notion of entails that Russell uses to state the existential conditions asserted by the definite article the that necessarily needs to be fulfilled in order for the statement to be true. On the contrary it is to imply in the special sense that the existential conditions are satisfied.(Cohen, 2008:3) If we use example (1) Russell would argue that The present king of France is bald is true if and only if There is a present king of France is true and vice versa, however Strawson contends that it is the case that The present King of France is bald only holds a truth value if and only if there exists a present king of France, if this condition is not met then the statement holds no truth value. So once more I draw the conclusion that referring to or mentioning a particular thing cannot be dissolved into any kind of assertion. To refer is not to assert, though you refer in order to go on to assert. (Strawson, 1950:335) It is in this that Caton (1959) realised that Strawson did not recognise the distinction between failing to refer to or to mention something and referring to or mention something (Caton, 1959: 540) in ordinary language usage and as such it is apparent that Strawson has not actually accounted for the way in which we use refer in ordinary language. In other words, when using language we use it the same regardless of whether we are referring to something which exists or does not exist. (Caton, 1959:540) Consequently, it is only possible to use a sentence or expression thinking it refers even though it does not, and surely even if one did use a non referring expression without intention surely it would appear as if one has referred? Consequently it appears as if it is not that the speaker fails to refer but rather he uses a sentence or expression with the intention of referring to something he believes to exist but actually does not. (Caton, 1954:542) The implication of this position is that when a speaker utters a statement which intends to refer to an existing thing but fails, the speaker will be corrected by someone as there is no existing king of France. It is just not substantive of our approach to ordinary use of language to suggest that a speaker could use a referring expression successfully or conversely unsuccessfully and furthermore is it not the case that when we utter a sentence, unless we are consciously aware that it is factious, that we would believe that what we are referring to is successful given the linguistic and social conventions that govern our language and thought? Strawson argues that this failure of reference could occur, however given the account above how often would a speaker refer to something believing it exists when it does not, surely even if this was the case, given our social pedigree for awareness, it would be so rare that surely it would be absurd to accept it as a foundation to a critique?(Caton, 1954:543) Furthermore if Straws on argues that his proposal is less problematic to ordinary language then surely the counterexamples used need be to be more inclined to towards our natural intentions of speech, and as such it seems that a Gricean distinction between intended and expressed propositions could almost accommodate for Russells Theory of Descriptions in this instance in that the meaning of the sentences that appear object-dependant studied by Russell are incomplete without the context of use that Grice studied through speaker-meaning. (Ramachandran, 1993:1) If we consider the example; (3)The book case is filled with DVDs Strawson uses awkward example such as (3), which expresses that there is one and only one bookcase and it is filled with DVDs when applied to Russells analysis, to devalue Russells theories but Neale (1990) developed ideas from Grice and argued that if (3) is applied to the notion of restricted quantification the absurd illusion disappears. That is the domain over which we take the quantifier is adequately altered and consequently the quantifier silently recognises the context of the speech act. Whilst this is by no means a solution it is evident that when a sentence such as (3) is used a contemporary, Russellian could argue that it is in its use that the statement is completed and furthermore this is through the restriction of quantification.(Lycan, 2008:22)I admit that there is still an ambiguity and awkwardness about the non-existent reference however it has become apparent that in ordinary language it would highly unlikely that a speaker would use (1) with the intention of referr ing but could it be as a condition of the non-intention of the speaker that the uncomfortable nature of truth arises? (Ramachandran, 1993:4) Keith Donnellan (1966) attempts to offer a pragmatic approach to the problem by suggesting that both Strawson and Russell are incorrect in their analysis of definite descriptions by claiming that they both commit to the error that when nothing satisfies the condition of being the referent that the truth value of the sentence or use or the sentence is affected. (King, 1984:14)Donnellan argues that this is not the case but rather a speaker could use a non-referring expression to express a true sentence despite the grammatical subject being a non-referring expression and this misunderstanding occurs in virtue of neither Strawson nor Russell appreciating both the referential and the attributive use of a definite description as a consequence of not analysing the interpretation of a sentence on specific occasions of use in the specific context.(Lycan, 2008:24) If we consider the example; (4) The person who bought that Ferrari is rich Donnellan argues that that statement could be uttered twofold; It could refer to the fact that the Ferrari was  £300,000 and as such it must be the case that the person who purchased the vehicle was wealthy, this is known as the attributive use of the description. It could also refer to Henry the man who purchased the vehicle after haggling the price down to  £250 000, this is known as the referential use of the description. Russells theory is an application of the attributive use of definite description in speech acts, whilst Strawsons argument against Russell is on the basis of him not recognising the referential role of definite descriptions, however Strawson neglects the attributive use and as such his theory is similarly problematic. (Cohen, 2008:2) Furthermore, the distinction between the referential use and the attributive use runs deeper, in that the truth values are different given there being nothing that satisfies the condition of being the referent in a use of a sentence as a direct consequence of the presuppositions in each case being different. In the case of the attributive use the assertion misfires as a result of their being nothing to satisfy the condition of the referent however in the referential sense it may still have a truth value given that the object that is being referred to may satisfy the description given and if it does not then the given speech act is misleading. As a result Donnellan demonstrates that out of context it is ludicrous to try and determine what a definite description is, because it is context dependant in that within a particular speech act it could be used for either referential or attributive use and as a consequence both Strawson and Russells arguments are deficient in some capacity. (Cohen, 2008:3) However, given that the question at hand is whether Strawsons critique has deeper philosophical implications for Russells theory, and that we have accepted that both theories are not sufficient if we accept Donnellans theory then could it be the case that given that Strawsons theory is not practical for ordinary language, is it worth accepting in light of the detrimental effect it has on the analysis of language given the arise of truth gaps? Subsequently by accepting Strawsons thesis on the non truth value of non-referring expression then we permit for these truth value gaps, whereby certain sentences cannot be subject to logical analysis because they lack a truth value. (Quine, 1953: 439) By analysing sentences under the scrutiny of formal logic there is the possibility of refraining from ambiguity because all sentences are ascribed a truth value through the proposition expressed by their existential logic properties. (Lemmon, 1966: 105) According to E.J Lemmon (1966) this is only sufficient if logic is not liable to imitate ordinary language to the effect that it manifests itself in the same manner. As Russell seemed to acknowledge this is not the case and in fact the role of logic is to control language under conditions where ordinary language cannot be regulated and therefore surely it is a given that it does not necessarily accurately represent ordinary language in every respect? Besides is it harmful to accept a situation whereby the logician is aware of the problem of non-referring descriptions, would it not be adequate to merely realise this and maintain the logical structure which has been demonstrated as efficient and practical? As far as the difficulty demonstrated by Strawson in this instance it only holds if and only if Russells intention was for the logical proposition to mimic ordinary language. (Lemmon, 1966:107) In conclusion I would argue that whilst neither Strawson nor Russells argument provides a wholly adequate account of definite descriptions, if we evaluate the purpose of each theory they are of differing successes. Russell provides a scientific approach to analysing definite descriptions which generally provides a sufficient measure for reference whilst still encompassing difficulties. Strawson on the other hand attempts to offer an improved theory in regard to ordinary language use however, the counterexamples he provides are not intuitive uses of language. Furthermore the implication is that it is unlikely that such occurrences would occur intentionally and as a consequence the position Strawson takes up is not philosophically practical given the arise of truth gaps when accepting his theory. Word count (3032 exclusive of reference and quotations)

The Discus Ring Essay -- Observation Essay, Descriptive Essay

The Discus Ring There is a place in my mind that none other is equal to. This place holds the dreams of so many; it grants the wishes of so few. Although hope can persevere through so many trials and tribulations, this place can crush hope in less than an instant. When there is the realization that hope has been mangled, that a person can be or has been defeated, this place may choose to reestablish that person's dignity and pride in the next instantor it may not. This place is the discus ring. Its occupants often call it "the ring". It is a small, square slab of concrete placed at the vertex of a precise angle. There is a white circle painted on the cement. Though it seems simple, this is the most complex piece of equipment and the biggest challenge in an athlete's life. Looking from an athlete's eyes, a person could see the world from the ring. Just spending time there could equally duplicate everything of importance that has ever been taught to them. Things like pride, disappointment, and responsibility to others as well as you are learned in this six by six-foot squa...

John Locke Essays -- Empiricists, Empiricism

John Locke believes that man ought to have more freedom in political society than John Stuart Mill does. John Locke's The Second Treatise of Government and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty are influential and potent literary works which while outlining the conceptual framework of each thinkers ideal state present two divergent visions of the very nature of man and his freedom. John Locke and John Stuart Mill have different views regarding how much freedom man ought to have in political society because they have different views regarding man's basic potential for inherently good or evil behavior, as well as the ends or purpose of political societies. In order to examine how each thinker views man and the freedom he ought to have in political society it is necessary to define freedom or liberty from each philosophers perspective. In The Second Treatise of Government, John Locke states his belief that all men exist in "a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of t heir possessions and person as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. " (Locke 4) Locke believes that man exists in a state of nature and thus exists in a state of uncontrollable liberty which has only the law of nature to restrict it, which is reason. (Locke 5) However Locke does state that man does not have the license to destroy himself or any other creature in his possession unless a legitimate purpose requires it. Locke emphasizes the ability and opportunity to own and profit from property as being necessary to be free. In On Liberty John Stuart Mill defines liberty in relation to three spheres; each successive sphere progressively encompasses and defines more elements relating to political society. The first sphere consists of the individuals "inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscious in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological." (Mill 13) The second sphere of Mill's definition encompasses the general freedoms which allow an individual to freely peruse a "...life to suit our own character; of doing as we like..." (Mill 13). Mill also states that these freedoms must not be interfered with by "fellow crea... ...ave left an indelible mark on the concept of freedom in political societies. John Locke favours greater freedom for man in political society than does John Stuart Mill does. Their beliefs regarding the nature of man and the purpose of the state are bound to their respective views regarding freedom because one position perpetuates and demands a conclusion regarding another. Locke system for dealing with man freedom and all other related matters severely limits the role of state to strictly guaranteeing individual freedom. This is the best method of preventing the perversion and abuse of the role and power of the state. Locke views simply stem from his faith in man and his potential to succeed independently, which collectively promotes the prosperity of the state. Mill does not implicitly trust or distrust man and therefore does not explicitly limit freedom, in fact he does define freedom in very liberal terms, however he does leave the potential for unlimited intervention into the personal freedoms of the individual by the state. This nullifies any freedoms or rights individuals are said to have because they subject to the whims and fancy of the state. from: ksampson@mustang.uwo.ca

The Use of Dramatic Irony in Sophocles Oedipus the King Essay

The Use of Dramatic Irony in Sophocle's Oedipus the King Tragedy as an element of the human experience has been the subject of many of the great works of literature written in the Western tradition. For some, tragedy embodies the highest form of humanity. It is through suffering that we are able to reveal ourselves most completely. Others see tragedy as an element of morality where we are to learn well the lessons of those who tempt the gods. The Ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, outlined a theory of tragedy as archetypal drama in his classic work, the Poetics. He uses the play by Sophocles, Oedipus the King (hereafter "Oedipus"), as the standard model by which all other tragedies are measured. In Aristotle's view, a perfect tragedy should not be simple, but rather complex in its action. It is the degree of complexity of the tragedy, the true increase in the amount of suffering that the heroic character has to go through, that intensifies the use of this device. The truly tragic figure will go through the play experiencing grad ually increasing amounts of knowledge which reveal more horrible details. At each revelation, the audience has already been made aware of the tragic event so it is prepared and waiting for the hero's downfall. To achieve true tragic circumstances, a clear reversal of fortune is required to occur to the main character. This reversal of fortune, above and beyond negative events, will then garner feelings of pity and fear in the hearts of the audience. As Aristotle states: The change of fortunes should be not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come as a result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a character either such as we have describe... ...is destined to marry his mother after defeating the Sphinx. The audience, however, long familiar with the ancient myth, is mindful that in solving the riddle Oedipus further condemns himself. These choices lead to the ultimate climax where Oedipus blinds himself and wanders the earth as punishment for his actions. The lack of knowledge of his fate combined with the audience's total familiarity with the myth provides for the greatest differential between knowing and not knowing. Dramatic irony, used throughout the play to emphasize the power of fate, is ultimately used as the closing statement of man's frailty in the face of infinite justice. Works Cited Aristotle. Poetics. 12 July 2005. http:classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.mb.txt Gwynn, R. S. Drama: A Pocket Anthology, Second Edition. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc, 2002.

Is Now the Time for Reparations for African Americans

The idea of reparations stems from the argument that African Americans should receive compensation for their unpaid labor, captivity, and the ongoing discriminations. Slavery did provide the means for whites to build wealth, income, and status while African Americans have continued to struggle. The oppression of segregation and the lack of rights made it impossible for African Americans to have any political and economic power to change their position.African Americans were unable to vote and use the power government to better their situation, like the Irish immigrants did in New York, until the Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965 and that only allowed free black men to vote. The reparations for African Americans debate has caused more disagreements than affirmative action has. On one side people believe that reparations are not relevant because it is so strenuous to identify the victims of slavery or punish those who committed the crime especially when they may be no longer around. They also think that reparations would have a negative effect on future racial grievances and the U. S. treasury. On the other side it has been argued that reparations are necessary to reach an economically equal society and reparations is the correct way of dealing with past wrong doings and the current racial inequalities in the United States. Robert L. Allen is in favor of reparations for African Americans. He believes that the problems that African Americans currently face are acquiring property, income and accumulating wealth and that these are a direct result of slavery and segregation.Allen says that reparations can be the start of redistribution of wealth in America so the economic equality between blacks and whites can be less dramatic. African Americans have been fighting for reparations as early as 1854. The reparations were asking for â€Å"redress of our grievances for the unparalleled wrongs, undisguised impositions, and unmitigated oppression which blacks have suffer ed at the hands of American people. † An anti-slave activist, Sojourner Truth, campaigned to receive free public land for former slaves after the Civil War. In the 1890s, Callie House filed a lawsuit for reparations.A pastor of Third Baptist Church in San Francisco, named Reverend Amos Brown, asked for reparations by way of tax credits and tuition for higher education. In its program for establishing a separate state the Nation of Islam demanded reparations stating that â€Å"former slave masters are obligated to provide minerally rich and fertile land. † Reparations were also desired by the Black Panther Party in tier Ten Point Program. Pointing out in Point Number Three that forty acres and two mules was promised one hundred years ago and would like to receive payment in cash to distribute among the community.In 1969, in New York City, former SNCC leader James Forman presented a Black Manifesto to Riverside Church requesting five hundred million dollars in reparations from white Christian Churches and Jewish synagogues. Forman wrote in The Making of Black Revolutionaries that reparations that were being asked were not only monetary but were also for revolutionary action toward the attitude of white America towards Blacks. The money would be used to help black farmers, businesses, community organization and research on black economic development.In 1968 the Republic of New Africa was founded to establish an independent Black Republic in the southern states with the largest African American population. In 1972 the Republic of New Africa developed an Anti-Depression Program that asked for three hundred billion dollars in reparations to establish self-sustaining communities as a part of an independent black nation. The Republic of New Africa stated that with reparations it is common that one nation pay another to compensate for damage caused by unjust acts of war and that is what has happened to the African nation in America.The programs did make mu ch progress but drew attention in good and bad ways. I believe that African Americans should get reparations but the attitudes of the ones that oppressed them have been to dismiss or undermined them and not show any blame. The National Black Political Convention supported reparations, stating that the poverty of black communities is traceable to slavery and the discrimination that blacks have faced in America. That wealth, power, and capitalism of America was built off of the exploitation of black people. A white law professor names Boris Bitker wrote a booked called The Case for Black Reparations in 1973.Instead of demanding reparations based on the injustice of slavery, Bitker argued to seek reparations for â€Å"injuries caused by a system of legally imposed segregation that violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. † That segregation and the Jim Crow laws founded in 1954 were unconstitutional and therefore subject to redress. Economists, following the lead of Robert S. Browne, produced work on the economics of slavery, the present value of past labor performed by slaves, the value of black labor since emancipation and racial disparities in distribution of wealth.From a political economic standpoint Robert Allen believes the process of underdevelopment of the African American community and the role of the state are vital in understanding the quest for reparations. The author of How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America, Manning Marable, argued that capitalism is the root cause of the underdevelopment of black America, while the wealth from slave labor has increased the development of North America economically and politically.He wrote in his book that capitalist development has occurred because of black exploitation and African Americans have never been equal in the American Social Contract because the system exists to under develop Black people. This is true but that is are more opportunities for African Americans to pull t hemselves out of poverty but that doesn’t mean that it is correct to leave large communities in that situation.The underdeveloped African American community was established by the restriction of black labor in slavery and underclass work, the restriction and twisted development of African American business and home ownership, the regressive political leadership, destruction of black education, racist violence, and the incarceration of black youth. As Marable also stated in his book and had support from many others, that the role of the state played an important part in the black communities’ underdevelopment. The state was directly involved in taking the value from black workers and blocked the capital accumulation by Black people.Laws establishing that black labor could be abused without compensation or punishment have been passed since the earliest colonial period. Slavery existed in the Virginia colonies in the 1640s and it because institutionalized by 1660s. P401 E dward Fagan, a New York Lawyer, started a campaign against companies that have he thinks have profited from slavery. He is targeting at least 60 companies some which are Lehman Brothers, New York Life, Aetna, Liggett, and Norfolk Southern. He is filling suits on behalf of all descendants of slaves in America and the defendants are the legal successors of entities that existed and profited during slavery.Economists plead ill gotten gain in the trillions that is asked for but Fagan expects the settlement to be in the tens of billions. Along with a black activist by the name of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, Mr. Fagan bases is plan on two main things, lobbying the government to pay its share and for a few companies to grow tired of the lawsuits and pays off. Congress made payouts in the sum of one point six billion dollars to eighty thousand Japanese-Americans were placed in camps during the Second World War. The German government also made reparations to Israel for its role in the Holocaus t. Mr.Fagan and other lawyers sued German companies on behalf of former slave laborers. Two of the suits were dismissed as a matter of foreign policy but New York regulators along with hundreds of local authorities threatened Deutsche Bank and other businesses to regulatory sanctions. The firms and the German government created a fund of five point two billion dollars which is being disbursed. The case may be undermined by the money because every dollar that should have been paid to slaves one hundred and fifty years ago can be worth anywhere from six thousand dollars to four hundred thousand dollars.It is also hard to assess the profits that the banks and insurers received from slavery. To overtake these obstacles Mr. Fagan thinks that public opinion can play in his favor, if there are boycotts, shareholder lawsuits, and local politicians willing to hold hearings and study the impact of slavery in their jurisdiction. The challengers of reparations for African Americans typically do not accept the connection between America’s racist past and the underdeveloped black communities.They also think that the current generation of African Americans doesn’t hold them accountable. There has been so much time that has passed since slavery and there is still so much animosity on both sides that I don't believe that the conflict will never go away. The opponents of reparations actually think that the overall view of white Americans is that they no longer identify themselves the racist past of the United States. Reparation in the United States for African American slavery is a controversy that is surrounded by resistance. Word Count: 1527

Britain And France Lost Their Power Of Influence History Essay

After the atomic Bomb was dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki ; Stalin began to be leery of America. [ Stalin ] â€Å" aˆÂ ¦his leery character led him astray by imputing to Western authorities aˆÂ ¦ † ( He believed that the Americans wanted to hold an influence in Europe that would rule the communist parts of Europe ; one would believe that this belief would farther act upon his intuition. â€Å" From 1947 on Stalin regarded the consolidation of the two axis and the comparative growing of the US influence in Europe as a foregone decision. † ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins24 ) Future USSR leaders besides had the same premise of the West ‘s involvement in ruling Eastern Europe. †¦ † he [ Khrushchev ] came to believe that West Germany politicians were utilizing the United States to derive power over GDR and to travel to domination in cardinal Europe. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins 198 ) â€Å" Stalin ‘s ambivalency seemed progressi vely baleful from Western position, and Washington and London began to look at the Soviet enlargement sanctioned at Yalta and Potsdam in a wholly different visible radiation. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins, 37 ) The writer show indicates that â€Å" Stalin feared the Americans and the British would ‘renege the Yalta understanding. ‘ † ( Zubok and pleshakou, Kremlins, 41 ) Stalin ‘s overpowering intuition lead to the Occidents on intuition which made them increases their attending on the enlargement of communism in Europe ; through the Yalta and Potsdam conference. There were many miscommunications within the USSR ; which in bend caused them to misinterpret the power and influence of the West. Some of the chief misinterpretations were brought approximately by Litvinov and Molotov who Stalin looked for to acquire accurate information on the West. Litvinov, every bit good as most perceivers, failed to anticipate the nature and way of American ‘s postwar engagement in the universe. In fact, this cognition of the United States led him to the wrong premise that Washington might return to isolationism and withdraw from international organisations. He seemed to believe that it would be much easier for the USSR and Great Britain to come to an â€Å" amicable understanding † about the European colony if the moralistic and expansionist United States would non interfere. ( Zubok and pleshakou, Kremlins,38-39 ) The false information Litvinov provided caused the leaders of the USSR to misinterpret the strength of the West. â€Å" Stalin and Molotov strongly believed that the US- British differences would be acute plenty to forestall their collusion against the Kremlin. â€Å" ( Zubok and pleshakou, Kremlins, 95 ) The concluding papers sent from the Soviet embassy in Washington to Moscow on September 27, 1946, reflected Molotov ‘s thought instead than the positions of the embassador. The United States, the wire said, abandoned its prewar tradition of isolationism and was now driven by the desire for universe supremacyaˆÂ ¦ The American authorities would halt at nil â€Å" to restrict or free the influence of the Soviet Union. â€Å" aˆÂ ¦ The wire pointed out â€Å" a secret understanding † between the Unites States and England â€Å" refering the partial division of the universe on the footing of common grants. ( zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins, 101-102 ) â€Å" The intelligence from Washington made the Kremlin leaders believe even more that they could destruct western integrity by revenging in West Berlin. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins107 ) This false information lead the USSR to desire to busy West Germany as a buffer zone to protect USSR and to distribute communism. The Marshall program was created by the Unites States to resuscitate the economic system of Europe. To the USSR the Marshall program was regarded as ; â€Å" The danger of American economic blackmail of Soviet Union ( the potency usage of economic assistance as purchase ) . â€Å" ( Zoubok and pleshakou, Kremlins,104 ) The USSR refused to hold any portion of the Marshall program. â€Å" The absence of the Soviet in Paris, Molotov seemed to believe, would assist worsen the tenseness in the emerging Western axis. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,106 ) Many communist believed it was good for the USSR to non hold a portion in the Marshall program. Zhdanov commented that â€Å" Communists will derive nil through peaceable cooperation within coalitionaˆÂ ¦ they may alternatively lose what they ‘ve travel. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,131 ) The United States initial purpose of the Marshall program was â€Å" aˆÂ ¦ as they [ USSR ] rapidly learned, was to strip the Soviet Union of its influence in Germany and cardinal Europe. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,105 ) The miscommunication with in the USSR caused them to misinterpret the connotations of the Marshall program. The Western powers wanted to stop the influence of communism in Europe and in making so ; â€Å" Western powers and leaders behaved the lone manner they could- as enemies of the Soviet Union and socialist manner of life. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,89 ) In order to incorporate the spread of communism the aˆÂ ¦ † British and American business zone would be united into ‘Bizonia, ‘ the U.S military personnels would remain, and the Sovietss would be excluded from control over the Ruhr industry. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,100 ) The Unites provinces was rigorous to the containment of communism that â€Å" aˆÂ ¦it made clear that it would non digest a neutralised incorporate Germany that might gravitate towards the Kremlin. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,107 ) This made the USSR gain the strength and influence of the West. The Kremlin swayers understood that â€Å" the harder they drove against Western political relations, the more their opposition contributed to the execution of American separationist program in Germany and Europe. â€Å" ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,107 ) â€Å" By 1947 it had become crystal clear that the western leaders regarded their cooperation with Stalin during the war old ages as an unfortunate episode that was to be followed by considerable withdrawal. â€Å" ( Zukob and Pleshakou, Kremlins,114 ) Although the USSR still believed that it was owed a batch for its engagement in the war. â€Å" Khrushchev steadfastly believed that the USSR has been wronged, mistreated by the United States after the terminal of the Second World War. â€Å" ( zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,182 ) Khrushchev ‘s belief was back up by an proclamation from the TASS. â€Å" On January 13th, 1953 TASS announced that for old ages, there had been a secret plan to assassinate Soviet leaders and that this secret plan was directed by the Western intelligence bureaus † ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,114 ) aˆÂ ¦ With this proclamation the USSR felt betrayed by the Allies it had fought with, and sacrificed a batch for. The USSR still felt tha t was to be owed a great trade for its work. â€Å" Two coevalss of Soviet diplomats after him [ Stalin ] believed that the Soviet Union was entitled to particular security agreements in Meleagris gallopavo † ( Zubok and Pleshakou, Kremlins,98 ) aˆÂ ¦ After the decease of Stalin, there were alterations in the regulation of the USSR. Before his decease Stalin ruled USSR with his ain involvement and temper in head ; which were driven by his intuition of the West. â€Å" Most Western analysts felt that the Kremlin ‘s enterprises after Stalin ‘s decease were either new, improved Soviet tactics in engaging the cold war or execution of policy designed to cut down international tensenesss bit by bit. â€Å" ( Zubok and Plshakou, Kremlins,139 ) Khrushchev who was Stalin ‘s replacement ousted Stalin and his signifier of regulation. Khrushchev wanted to â€Å" outfox the ‘dark forces ‘ in the united States- to do them abandon their policies of haughtiness, no acknowledgment, and strength towards the USSR. â€Å" ( Zubok and Plshakou, Kremlins,184 ) The perceptual experience and misperception from the US and the USSR were really of import. They influenced or started the fire of tenseness between the two states that would subsequently on lead to scientific rebellion of atomic arms ; and the cold war. The misgiving, usage of false information, the influence of capitalist economy in states that the USSR wanted to distribute communism, the deficiency of regard and that that the USSR received for assisting the Alliess in the 2nd universe war, and the decease of Stalin and a new leader all lead to the misperception and perceptual experience between the US and USSR which was the starting point of the tenseness between the two states.